What is the philosophical position that reality can only be known by understanding the

Construct validity of a measure assessed by examining whether groups of people differ on the measure in expected ways

What will be an ideal response?

The introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus, or the removal of a desirable stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur in the future, is considered __________

a) classical conditioning b) punishment c) social-cognitive learning d) reinforcement