What term describes the influence of the past on the present?

One of the authors once rented a Volkswagen with a stick shift in the

Netherlands, and could not get it into reverse. In order to put it into reverse, the stick shift post had to be pressed downwards. That is, reverse was in a different plane than the neutral position and the forward gears were. This would be most clearly an example of the (a) designer and typical user having different conceptual models (b) the control information having a natural mapping (c) the control information not being in the environment (d) the user making an external attribution when he felt so inadequate

A common element across therapies, regardless of paradigm, is:

a) Focusing directly upon symptoms. b) Challenging irrational beliefs. c) Determining stimuli that control dysfunctional behaviour. d) Maintaining a positive relationship between therapist and client.