Although 78-year-old Edmund has no problem with physical activities, such as dressing and eating, he has difficulty with tasks that require some cognitive competence, such as preparing food and paying his bills. Edmund displays difficulty with

A camp leader repeatedly hugs a camper after she helps her friend. Each time, the camper is embarrassed and shies away from future acts of assistance. In the example, "Hugging the camper" is _______

a. a positive reinforcer b. a primary reinforcer c. a punishment d. none of the above

Contemporary social-learning and cognitive theories differ from the early learning theory approaches in that they

a. hold that environmental contingencies are not important. b. suggest that organisms react passively to their environments. c. emphasize cognitive processes as well as behavioral ones. d. minimize the importance of mental processes.