Arguments against nonpartisan elections include all but which one of the following?

a. Nonpartisan elections rob the voters of the most important symbol that they have for making electoral choices.
b. Nonpartisan elections contribute to low voter turnout.
c. Nonpartisan elections undermine the development of strong state parties because the grassroots are weak.
d. Nonpartisan elections encourage the development of civic organizations that are basically political parties whose purposes are not always clear to the voters.
e. Nonpartisan elections enhance the community's ability to effectively criticize the government in power.

E