The special case of presenting reinforcement after each response is called _____ reinforcement.

Which of the following explanations has been offered to explain the fact that women are more often diagnosed with depression and anxiety than men?

a. Women produce more estrogen than do men, and it is well-documented that estrogen has a greater impact on the emotional centers of the brain (in the limbic system) that lead to these disorders. b. In Western society, women are "allowed" to discuss their feelings, which leads to a greater incidence of diagnosis. c. Women are more severely affected by societal pressures, which leads them down the path of mental disorder far more readily than men. d. Women are more likely to be unemployed, leading to a sense of learned helplessness that is so crucial to the development of anxiety and depression.

Before offering help, a bystander must decide that she or he has a responsibility to provide help. This is UNLIKELY to occur if ________

A) the emergency represents a clear danger to the bystander B) there is only one bystander present C) the emergency is relatively severe or serious D) an authority figure, or emergency personnel, is present E) a family relationship exists between the bystander and the person in need of help