Government expenditures are larger than government outlays

A causal effect for a single individual

A) can be deduced from the average treatment effect. B) cannot be measured. C) depends on observable variables only. D) is observable since it is used as part of calculating the mean of individual causal effects.

Other things equal, granting unemployment benefits or welfare benefits to striking workers

A) reduces the likelihood of a strike since management will be more cooperative. B) reduces the costs of a strike to workers and will increase their willingness to strike. C) reduces the likelihood of a strike since union workers make wages significantly above unemployment benefits or welfare payments. D) increases the willingness of management to permit a strike.