According to Hackman and Oldham (1980), which of these represents the extent to which individuals value fulfilling their higher-order needs?

What do scientists know about gender differences on tests of visual-spatial abilities?

a. There are none. b. Boys generally start out with an advantage but girls are the same by middle school. c. Boys and girls are born with roughly equal abilities. d. Girls start out with an advantage but by adolescence, boys tend to score better.

A pigeon pecks a lighted disk on the wall of a test chamber and receives food after the peck. Research has confirmed that, in this example of the operant procedure, the longer the delay between the response and the eliciting stimulus,

a. the weaker the operant response.

b. the weaker the elicited response.

c. the stronger the operant response.

d. the stronger the elicited response.

e. unlike the classical procedure, delay makes no difference to the strength of the response.