Which of these is not an argument of opponents of nonpartisan elections?

a. Nonpartisan elections rob the voters of the most important symbol that they have for making electoral choices.
b. Such elections contribute to low voter turnout.
c. The development of strong state parties is undermined by nonpartisan elections because the grassroots are weak.
d. Nonpartisan elections encourage the development of civic organizations, which are basically political parties whose purposes are not always clear to the voters.
e. These elections enhance the community's ability to effectively criticize the government in power.

e