Explain the measurements for smoking exposure and health risks that can be used to gauge prevalence and problems

There are various measurements for smoking exposure and health risks that can be used to gauge prevalence and problems. Subjectively, smokers can self-report smoking and its health effects or take self-administered surveys. Estimates of tobacco consumption in most population surveys are usually based on self-reported information, which is generated from standard questions such as: Are you a current or former smoker? Have you ever smoked? Do you now smoke every day, some days, or not at all? How many packets of cigarettes do you smoke per day? However, studies show that self-reported estimates may underestimate true smoking prevalence (Coultas, Howard, Peake, Skipper, & Samet, 1988; Lewis et al., 2003; Tyrpien, Bodzek, & Manka, 2001). Alternatively, scientists may choose to use biochemical tests to objectively measure tobacco use and exposure. Objective measures include measuring nicotine levels in blood, hair, and urine. These measures have proven effective in controlling for the biases of self-reported tobacco user rates but may not be feasible for measurement in large-scale studies (Gorber, Schofield-Hurwitz, Hardt, Levasseur, & Tremblay, 2009).?