The introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus, or the removal of a desirable stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur in the future, is considered ________ learning

Regarding the schizophrenic brain, which of the following statements is FALSE?

a. MRIs on schizophrenic brains show the brain regions crucial for regulating motivation, emotion, perception, actions, and attention to be abnormal. b. On PET scans, the activity tends to be abnormally low in the frontal lobes of the schizophrenic brain. c. CT scans show tightly-packed narrow surface fissuring of the schizophrenic brain. d. MRIs show that schizophrenic brains tend to have enlarged ventricles.

In an independent-measures ANOVA, individual differences contribute to the variance in the numerator and in the denominator of the F-ratio. For a repeated-measures ANOVA, what happens to the individual differences in the denominator of the F-ratio?

a. They do not exist because the same individuals participate in all treatments. b. They are measured and subtracted out in the second stage of the analysis. c. Individual differences contribute to the variance in the denominator. d. None of the other options accurately describes individual differences in the denominator.