Which type of study may NOT have an implied null hypothesis?

Which one of the following is true of the Supreme Court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)?

a. It overturned Roe v. Wade. b. It required second-term abortions to be performed only in licensed clinics. c. It struck down a constitutional amendment intended to permit the states to restrict abortion. d. It struck down a Missouri law that imposed a number of restrictions on abortions. e. It established a standard that abortion restrictions should not place an "undue burden" on women.

When testing the implications of modernization theory and the survival story, it is most appropriate to look at which of the following?

A. The absolute number of transitions to democracy and dictatorship at different levels of wealth. B. The probability of a transition to democracy or dictatorship at different levels of wealth.