All of the following except one are part of the guidelines for ethical research. Which is not?

a. All research is reviewed by an IRB (institutional review board) that consists of at least one scientist, one nonscientist, and one person unaffiliated with the institution.
b. A researcher receives informed consent from a participant unless deception is deemed necessary and the experiment meets ethical guidelines.
c. When deception is used in a study, participants must be fully debriefed.
d. There must be a cover story for every study, because all studies involve some type of deception.

Answer: D