A patient with left heart failure starts to have a cough and dyspnea. Pulmonary symptoms com-mon to left heart failure are a result of:

a. inflammatory pulmonary edema.
b. decreased cardiac output.
c. pulmonary vascular congestion.
d. bronchoconstriction.

ANS: C
The clinical manifestations of left heart failure are the result of pulmonary vascular congestion and inadequate perfusion of the systemic circulation. Pulmonary edema does occur, but it is not due to inflammation. Decreased cardiac output does occur, but the pulmonary symptoms are re-lated to pulmonary congestion. Pulmonary symptoms are not due to bronchoconstriction.