What is true of Supreme Court ruling on affirmative action
a. Affirmative action policies are generally permissible, but they cannot involve race-based quotas or numerical point systems.
b. Affirmative action policies are assumed to be unconstitutional unless the university can demonstrate the need to promote racial tolerance.
c. Affirmative action policies are assumed to be constitutional unless an applicant can demonstrate that race affected the admissions decision.
d. All forms of affirmative action are unconstitutional because they unfairly favor some people over others based on the color of their skin.
a
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